“If there is one place on the face of Earth where all the dreams of living men have found a home from the very earliest days when man began the dream of existence, it is India.”
– Romain Rolland
The study of ancient civilisations reveals how the present world has evolved. From the dawn of creation, water has been a crucial element for managing and sustaining life. All major civilisations emerged along riverbanks, such as the Nile, the Tigris, and the Indus rivers. However, this pattern changed significantly with the advent of portable water and storage devices, allowing mankind could set up settlements at various places.
The Stepwells of India
Indian architecture is a dynamic tapestry of storytelling clad in stone. It is a layered narrative of communities, innovation, and spirituality with great regard for ecological significance. Stepwells are phenomenal instances of vernacular subterranean architecture native to the Indian subcontinent. These extraordinary structures were built across multiple locations, generally along the ancient trade routes across Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Bihar and parts of Pakistan. These reservoirs consist of deep wells that lead up to 8 to 10 storeys underground to access the water table.
The stepwells are subterranean trenches or rock-cut wells accessed by sets of stairs. These structures are known by various regional terms such as Baori, Bhav, Kalyani, Pushkarni, or Bhavdi. In the Shilpa sastras, they were referred to by their Sanskrit names: vapis or vapikas. These structures are unique yet often underappreciated architectural forms within Indian architecture. The renowned French traveller Sir Louis Rousselet has mentioned the western Indian stepwells in his journals. He described them as “a vast sheet of water, covered with lotuses in flower, amid which thousands of aquatic birds are sporting”.
The Primitive Need for Water Management
An adequate water management system was the key to survival in ancient civilisations. For centuries, stepwels have served as important sites for communal drinking, bathing, and washing, as well as for sacred rituals and festivals among the Western-Indian locals. Additionally, these wells acted as cooling sanctuaries for the pilgrims, caravans, travellers, and traders as resting stations. Besides being a source of livelihood, they also fostered gatherings and social interactions. Many of these Baoris have engraved images of deities, highlighting the ritualistic aspect of the edifices.
The oldest stepwells of the area date back to the 3rd century CE, which was born out of the necessity for managing water in an unforeseeable monsoonal zone. This area is typically dry most of the year but experiences heavy rainfall during monsoons. It was essential for the locals to figure out a storage system that would guarantee them an annual water supply. This was an important need for the northwestern segment of the country where the water table was inconveniently buried 100 feet underground.
Construction of a Cure
After the 4th century CE, the construction of the Baoris grew with great vigour, especially along the southwestern side of Gujarat and North Rajasthan. This activity peaked between the 11th and 16th centuries when several thousand of these reservoirs were built. Most of the existing stepwells we come across today were constructed after the 12th century. It is believed that the practice of stepwells preceded the 3rd century, as evidenced by the discovery of over 700 wells in a region in Mohenjo-Daro.
By the 19th century, several thousand Baoris of varying grandeur had been constructed in various parks, villages, cities, and private gardens across the country. Stepwells are both environmentally and culturally important edifices that allow the general public to access groundwater and maintain its levels. This structure is mostly seen in areas that are dry and arid areas with inconsistent and unreliable rainfall levels. Therefore, the only solution for this issue was to harvest the rainwater in storage tanks or wells, which can be accessed later.
The Architecture
The major parts of a stepwell are located below the surface of the land, some of them resembling the nearby subterranean temples. Most wells consisted of two divisions – a vertical shaft that protected the water level from direct sunlight by a partial or fully covered roof to reduce evaporation and the surrounding subterranean labyrinth of stairways, chambers, passageways, and resting mandapas. The shaft acted as the point of collection for the rainwater. During the dry seasons, over a hundred steps had to be descended to access the water level, and during monsoons, the well would take the shape of a huge reservoir.
As societies evolved, Baoris became more advanced. Rainwater did not flow directly into the reservoirs, but was diverted into artificial tanks and canals. This water was then channelled into the wells using an intricate system of pipes and aquifers.
Stylistically varied, a stepwell can be of various forms and layouts. They incorporate several flights of stairs that lead people from the ground to the reservoir. They can be circular, quadrilateral, or even L-shaped. Constructed using durable materials like brick, rubble, or masonry, these wells were both practical and aesthetically pleasing. One of the best-known examples is the Rani ki Vav in Patan, Gujarat, for its delicate sculptures and beautifully adorned stepwell that goes deep into the earth. Likewise, the Chand Baori in Abhaneri, Rajasthan, is famous for its stunning geometric patterns and enormous staircase that forms a breathtaking visual spectacle. Another prominent example is the Agrasen ki Baori in Delhi, which presents a contrasting combination of function and beauty through its elaborate carvings and balanced design.
The Incorporation of Art
Over the centuries, the architecture of the stepwells evolved into intricately complex structures. Most surviving wells are richly ornamented and engraved with reliefs and sculptures. Some of them also feature paintings using various lime-based pigments, some of which have endured the toll of time. In addition to sculptures from the Hindu Pantheon, these structures also depicted secular images portraying daily life, Mithun figures, acrobatics, war scenes, and ornate panel decorations featuring floral motifs.
After the 12th century, one can spot the changes cited due to the Mughal dominion in the nation. Hindu artisans used the standard post and lintel system, accompanied by corbelled domes. The Mughals introduced to us the true arch and the true domes. Likewise, Mughals were against the depictions of human figures.
In some places, such as the Dada Harir Bhav and the Rudabai Bhav, which emerged around the 16th century, amalgamated these two styles wonderfully. Both of these wells were patroned by women and were built by Hindu artisans under the supervision of Islamic authorities.
The Abandonment
A few centuries ago, the Baoris were fundamental to life. Thousands of these wells were built by the regional heads as a community supply. But as the civilisations have advanced, most of them have fallen into neglect and disuse. Many of them have grown dry due to excessive industrial use. The groundwater level has depleted, and the water table has fallen below the levels of the wells.
Right now, only a handful of stepwells are in decent conditions, most of them being active tourism spots. Many stepwells were barricaded, destroyed or filled in by the British rulers after they were deemed unhygienic and breeding grounds for parasites. Also, urbanisation provided us with modern substitutes such as taps, and water tanks that terminated the need of stepwells. As the abandonment persisted, most of these structures became trash chutes and public urinals.
Towards a Sustainable Future
The growing urgency for water conservation and treatment has raised concerns and led to notable efforts towards the deactivation and desilting of some stepwells. Not too long ago, a forgotten stepwell was revived from a dump yard near Bansilalpet, Secunderabad. More than 2000 tons of debris were removed during the restoration process. The newly revived well now serves as an active tourist destination while also aiding in rainwater harvesting. The tank also prevents the flooding of nearby neighbourhoods. The surrounding area now consists of streets, plazas, and an amphitheatre. This gives us a glimmer of hope and demonstrates how ancient water harvesting systems can be repurposed to address modern urban challenges. The success of the Bansilalpet restoration also provides a template for restoring other neglected stepwells and implementing rainwater harvesting systems in urban areas.
References:
Neubauer, Jutta Jain (1981). The Stepwells of Gujarat: An Art-Historical Perspective. India: Abhinav Publications.
Lee, Sang (2011). Aesthetics of Sustainable Architecture. Rotterdam: 010 Publishers.
Chakrabarti, Mahua (2017). Stepwell – The Water Architecture of India. Pakistan Heritage, Volume 9 (2017), pp. 103-120. Available at: https://ph.hu.edu.pk/public/uploads/vol-9/08-Stepwell%20%E2%80%93%20the%20water%20architecture%20of%20India.pdf [Accessed: 21 April 2025]
Sriparvathy, Unni and Salahsha, T. N. (2021), Adalaj Stepwell: A Magical Resonance of Architectural Ingenuity. Athens Journal of Architecture, Volume 7 (2), pp. 275-304. Available at: https://www.athensjournals.gr/architecture/2021-7-2-3-Sriparvathy.pdf [Accessed: 21 April 2024]
Mukherjee, Sabyasachi (n.d.). Rani–ki–Vav: A subterranean temple of Mother Goddess. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya. Available at: https://csmvs.in/wp-content/uploads/publication_newsletters/Rani%E2%80%93ki%E2%80%93Vav.pdf [Accessed: 24 April 2025]
Parmar, Samirsinh P., & Mishra, Debi Prasad (2024). Passive cooling techniques in medieval Indian stepwells. Frontiers of Architectural Research, Volume 13 (6), pp. 1447-1460. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2024.03.014 [Accessed: 25 April 2025]
Chandra, Sharad (2015). Steps to Water: Stepwells in India. Chitrolekha International Magazine on Art and Design, Volume 5 (2). Available at: www.chitrolekha.com/V5/n2/04_Stepwells_in_India.pdf [Accessed: 22 April 2025]
Neubauer, Jutta Jain (n.d.). The Stepwells of Delhi. Available at: https://wgbis.ces.iisc.ac.in/biodiversity/sahyadri_enews/newsletter/issue52/bibliography/the-Stepwells-of-Delhi.pdf [Accessed: 25 April 2025]
Singh, Aditi and Mishra, Soma A. (2019). Study of Ancient Stepwells in India. International Journal of Research in Engineering, Science and Management, Volume 2 (10). Available at: https://www.ijresm.com/Vol.2_2019/Vol2_Iss10_October19/IJRESM_V2_I10_173.pdf [Accessed: 21 April 2025]
Nikam, Kirti Nishant (2024). Stepwells as Heritage Sites: Exploring Their Roles for Sustainable Communities. Ancient Asia, Volume 15 (1). Available at: https://ancient-asia-journal.com/upload/1/volume/Vol.%2015%20(2024)/PDF/6_Kirti%20Nishant.pdf [Accessed: 22 April 2025]
Government of India, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (2022). Stepwells of India (Jal Mandir). [online] (last updated 22 June 2022). Available at: https://static.pib.gov.in/WriteReadData/specificdocs/documents/2022/jun/doc202262267001.pdf
Datta, Rangan (2023). Hyderabad’s Bansilalpet Stepwell: Ravaged, Reimagined, Then Revived. Telegraph India. Available at: www.telegraphindia.com/my-kolkata/places/hyderabads-bansilalpet-stepwell-ravaged-reimagined-then-revived/cid/1922205.
Lasania, Yunus (2022). Bansilalpet Stepwell Restoration: Significant Placemaking but Questions Remain. Question of Cities [online] (Last Updated 30 December 2022) Available at: https://questionofcities.org/bansilalpet-stepwell-restoration-significant-placemaking-but-questions-remain/
Lautman, Victoria (2014). Stepwell Architecture. Encyclopedia Britannica [online] (Last Updated 17 July 2014) Available at: https://www.britannica.com/technology/stepwell/Current-state-and-future
Bordewekar, Sandhya (n.d.) A Dropet of Water for a Stepwell. Critical Collective [online] Available at: https://criticalcollective.in/ArtistInner2.aspx?Aid=1141&Eid=1317
Image Sources:
- https://reasonstobecheerful.world/reviving-indias-stepwells-water-scarcity/
- https://www.pinterest.com/pin/54043264265552711/
3.https://www.facebook.com/WorldwideHinduTemples/photos/chand-baori-is-a-stepwell-situated-in-the-village-of-abhaneri-in-the-indian-stat/1710181865794334/
- https://reasonstobecheerful.world/reviving-indias-stepwells-water-scarcity/
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rani_ki_Vav
- https://reasonstobecheerful.world/reviving-indias-stepwells-water-scarcity/
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rani_ki_Vav
- https://www.britannica.com/technology/stepwell
- https://in.pinterest.com/pin/417075615475569271/
