2001 Bhuj earthquake in Gujarat Over 20,000 people lost their lives
2010 Haiti earthquake, which left over 1.5 million people homeless
2011 Tōhoku earthquake & tsunami, Japan, resulted in approximately 20,000 fatalities
2017 Kutupalong, the largest refugee camp in the world, housing 800,000 Rohingya refugees.
2025 Israel–Hamas war, over 47,000 people reported killed in the Israel–Hamas war
The above are some of the worst disasters, natural and manmade, the world has seen in the last 30 years, the aftermath of which has put to the test the true essence of humanitarian architecture. Entire communities were reduced to rubble, forcing families to leave homes they had been living in for decades.
Rebuilding entire villages, towns, and cities after a disaster is not just about money—it is about people. While financial resources are crucial, the real challenge lies in creating safe spaces. Survivors do not just need a roof over their heads; they need safety, familiarity, and a sense of belonging. The scarcity of materials, complex political dynamics, and the urgency of rapid construction add to the struggle. But the true essence of humanitarian architecture goes beyond construction—it is about listening to communities, respecting cultural roots, and fostering trust. It is about rebuilding not just walls but lives, dignity, and hope.
This article explores real-life cases where humanitarian architecture, despite its well-intended objectives(or not), fell short of effectively addressing community needs. It critically assesses underlying factors contributing to these failures. Interventions that proved to be ineffective or misaligned with the socio-cultural and environmental contexts of the affected populations have also been studied.
Temporary permanence
The urgency to provide immediate relief with temporary shelters and rebuilding strategies comes with immense challenges.
The priority of humanitarian architecture is to provide efficient housing for affected populations. However, many temporary interventions, such as refugee camps or emergency housing settlements, often extend beyond their intended lifespan, leading to long-term challenges for the displaced communities. Prolonged crises, bureaucratic delays, and the lack of alternative housing solutions are common factors responsible for the transformation of these temporary settlements into semi-permanent or even permanent dwellings.
Japan’s Refugee camp post 2011 floods
Japan boasts of being one of the most technologically advanced nations in the world with its top infrastructure and architectural skills. Despite these, even a well-organized response struggled to transition displaced people into a comfortable setting with time.
The earthquake/ tsunami of 2011 took the lives of 20,000 and left nearly 60,000 displaced. It also shut down a nuclear plant’s cooling system, triggering meltdowns and leading to soil contamination, making it necessary for people to evacuate the area.
Japan’s response was initially praised for its efficiency, with prefabricated housing units providing essential shelter to displaced families. However, as reconstruction efforts overstretched the intended period, many survivors found themselves trapped in these so-called temporary homes for five to ten years. Some of the issues faced were:
- Lack of Community Rebuilding: Traditional Japanese communities are famous for fostering a sense of neighborhood connection. The temporary units were arranged in grid-like formations, which isolated its residents.
- Health and Mental Well-Being: The prefabricated units lacked insulation, making these homes unbearably cold in winter and hot in summer. With limited access to social spaces and long-term uncertainty, many residents experienced anxiety and depression.
- Aging Population Challenges: Many elderly survivors were unable to rebuild homes or secure alternative housing and hence remained in temporary shelters far beyond the expected timeline, struggling with mobility issues since the accommodations were not designed for long-term elderly care.
While Japan’s post-tsunami response was one of the most efficient in modern history, it still revealed how even the best-intended humanitarian architecture can fail if long-term needs are not considered from the outset.
Kenya’s Refugee Sanctuary
For the past 25 years, the refugees of Dadaab have been caught in an indefinite wait, longing for the chance to belong somewhere. The Dadaab refugee complex borders Kenya and was initially established in 1991 as a temporary response to the Somali Civil War. Despite its designation as a temporary settlement, Dadaab has persisted for over three decades, housing almost four generations of refugees who have lived their entire lives stuck within the boundaries of Dadaab. Over half a million people are heavily dependent on dwindling food aid by external agencies like UNHCR.
To top it off, the Kenyan Government has banned creating permanent structures and restricted the movement of refugees outside camp boundaries, making it difficult to access alternate sources of income. The camp’s architecture, which is touching its 35th year and is rooted in an ethos of impermanence, deeply impacted the inhabitants’ ability to establish a stable sense of home and identity.
The walls of Abdula’s house are made of wooden poles stripped from thorn trees, the roof a vaulted tin sheet
In terms of materiality, Dadaab’s shelters are primarily constructed from UNHCR-issued tarpaulins, corrugated metal sheets, and mud walls reinforced with sticks. Being a third-world country where money is extremely tight, the materials chosen are based on affordability and rapid deployment. The message conveyed was clear: these structures are not meant to last. However, for decades, families have repaired them with whatever materials they can find. The fragility of these structures means that they require constant maintenance, reinforcing a daily struggle for survival rather than a sense of long-term belonging.
The temperature ranges between 21 and 38 degrees centigrade and is hot most of the year. The choice of materials does not support insulation against Dadaab’s harsh climate. The tin roofs amplify heat during the day and fail to retain warmth at night, creating a physically uncomfortable and psychologically unsettling environment.
The absence of culturally significant spaces—such as mosques and public gathering areas—further alienates residents. The material fragility, rigid spatial design, and overall uncertainty create an environment where the notion that this is a place of waiting rather than living is reinforced. Instead of serving as a transitory space towards betterment, Dadaab has become an enduring symbol of exile for generations of families.
Emergency relief saves lives, but relying on it too long without shifting to development support can create dependency.
Myanmar, the Rohingya camps and the third world country
The Rohingya camps in Kutupalong, Bangladesh, are home to almost a million refugees who have fled Myanmar because of discrimination based on ethnicity. These overcrowded camps are built on steep sandy hills, which once used to be jungles. Since the vegetation is stripped down to provide shelter and firewood for the refugees, the risk of landslide is a potential problem for many Rohingya families living in these makeshift shelters.
The refugees are given shelter kits: bamboo for the skeleton structure and plastic sheeting for roofing and insulation from rain. Since one family shares a shelter, the concept of private spaces does not exist. The refugees also receive a shelter kit containing materials such as bamboo poles and plastic sheeting, after which they are assigned a small area to build on.
The problem with camps is not only the speed and scale of the arrival of refugees leading to a severe shortage of resources but also unorganized spatial decisions that unknowingly reinforce existing social divides. For example, common facilities like water points or communal areas might create inequalities among the residents based on gender or ethnicity.
Another major issue is the creation of unplanned latrines and wells. The shallow pit latrines covered using bamboo poles, and tarpaulins pose a serious threat to safety and hygiene. Once the latrine is full, a new one is dug beside the old latrine, and millions of refugees are at risk for water-borne diseases like cholera or diarrhea.
Temporal Architecture, Permanant Associations
What if the form and space themselves inadvertently embed trauma into the lives of the people they aim to serve?
Humanitarian architecture must move beyond quick solutions and incorporate flexibility in terms of culture, technology, relevance and sustainability. The end products should not be sites of confinement but rather environments where people can rebuild their lives with dignity. By prioritizing community-driven design and durable, flexible spaces, humanitarian architecture can shift from a symbol of crisis, ensuring that displaced individuals are not just housed, but given the chance to belong somewhere and thrive.
References:
- Websites
Voa news (2025) Gaza is in ruins, and it’s unclear how it will be rebuilt [online]. (January 25,2025). Available at: https://www.voanews.com/a/gaza-is-in-ruins-and-it-s-unclear-how-it-will-be-rebuilt-/7940413.html
WordPress (2012). Eat Pray Love – Japan [online]. (Last updated; (July 2023). Available at: https://epljapan.wordpress.com/2012/07/06/team-1-a-photo-of-the-kasetsu-jutaku-temporary-housing-community-where-we-set-up-our-cafe/
MalteserInternational(NA).Inside the Kutupalong refugee camp, Cox’s Bazar [online]. (Last updated: (NA). Available at:
https://www.malteser-international.org/en/our-work/asia/bangladesh/life-in-a-refugee-camp.html#:~:text=Inside%20the%20Kutupalong%20refugee%20camp,violent%20persecution%20in%20neighboring%20Myanmar
CNN (2015).Sanctuary without end; The refugees the world forgot [online]. (Last updated NA) Available at: https://edition.cnn.com/interactive/2015/10/world/dadaab-refugees/
NPR (2016). 5 Years After Japan Disasters, ‘Temporary’ Housing Is Feeling Permanent [online]. (Last updated March 11, 2016) Available at: https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2016/03/11/469857023/5-years-after-japan-disasters-temporary-housing-is-feeling-permanent
