Air pollution in India is an environmental and public health issue affecting the entire population. In 2010, the record of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) pollution was concentrated in the northeastern region of the country, in the most densely populated states such as Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar (Chakraborty and Basu, 2021). Nevertheless, over the years, high PM2.5 concentrations have spread to the central and southern parts of the country, as shown in Figure 1 (Chakraborty and Basu, 2021). The following is a summary of scientific studies that have analysed the main causes of air pollution in the country and the control measures to ensure the population’s well-being.
Image 1_Annual average PM 2.5 concentration 2010 – 2016_ © Chakraborty and Basu (2021).
Main Sources of Urban Pollution in India
The main sources of pollution in India are diverse and vary depending on the economic activities of different cities. According to Guttikunda et. al., (2014), the study conducted by the Central Pollution Control Board in 2010 identified the primary sources of pollution in Pune, Chennai, Kanpur, Delhi, Mumbai, and Bangalore. Although pollution is often initially associated with transportation due to CO2 emissions from vehicles, the study highlighted that transportation contributes to pollution between 7% and 43% in these cities, with Chennai being the most affected. Additionally, there are other sources of pollution like industries (8% – 26%), waste burning (5% – 25%), road dust (8% – 57%), construction dust (45%), residential sources (4% – 19%), diesel generators (7% – 14%), among others.
Image 2_ Satellite Image of Smog Cloud over Pakistan and India in November 2017 According to The New York Times_ © NASA
The alert regarding urban pollution in India is not solely due to the smog in cities captured in controversial photographs that expose the country’s reality. The greater concern is the lethal repercussions of the air quality that residents breathe. According to Ganguly et. al. (2020), there have been 268,000 deaths associated with biomass combustion in households, between 100,000 and 169,000 deaths related to anthropogenic dust, coal burning in power plants and thermal industries, and between 65,000 and 66,000 deaths linked to transportation, non-road diesel, brick kilns, and agricultural burning.
Health Risks in Indian Households
According to the research “Indoor Air Pollution in India: Implications on Health and its Control” by Ankita Kankaria, Baridalyne Nongkynrih, and Sanjeev Kumar Gupta from the Centre for Community Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, there are additional counterproductive factors in households that exacerbate urban pollution in India. This aspect is critical because it not only affects urban air quality but also impacts the homes of over 200 million people who use fuels for cooking. As a fundamental element, the kitchen is a universal space dedicated to family meals. This means that over 200 million people prepare their food using some of the most toxic pollution sources for health, which presents a very high risk of chronic and fatal respiratory diseases due to suspended particles, carbon monoxide, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, organic matter, and formaldehyde (Kankaria et. al., 2014).
The primary energy sources used as fuel in Indian households are as follows: wood (49%), dung (8.9%), coal or charcoal (1.5%), kerosene (2.9%), liquefied petroleum gas (28.6%), and other sources such as electricity or biogas (0.1%-0.4%). The use of these fuels in households negatively impacts health, causing approximately 2 million premature deaths annually. The main diseases associated with these fuels are pneumonia (44%), chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (54%), and lung cancer (2%). Women and children are the most affected because they spend more time in the home. Table 1 summarises the main diseases associated with exposure to pollutants prevalent in cooking fuels (Kankaria et. al.,2014).
Table 1. Combustion Pollutants and Associated Diseases according to Kankaria et. al. (2014).
| Combustion Pollutants | Associated Diseases |
| Sulphur Dioxide | Cardiovascular Diseases and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases |
| Wheezing and Asthma Exacerbation | |
| Nitrogen Dioxide | |
| Respiratory Infections and Deterioration of Lung Function | |
| Carbon Monoxide | Perinatal Risks: Low Birth Weight and Perinatal Death |
| Biomass Smoke | Cataracts |
| Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons | Lung, Mouth, Nasopharyngeal, and Laryngeal Cancer |
Control Measures to Mitigate Pollution in India
Identifying the main sources of pollution allows efforts to be directed toward the causes that require the most urgent intervention and prevention. Ganguly et. al., (2020) emphasise the importance of investing in air quality monitoring across the country through meteorological stations that gather data to aid in the formulation of policies and action plans for improving air quality in India. The previously mentioned figures served as a significant alert for the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MoEFCC) to initiate the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) in early 2019.
Following this initiative, NCAP established action points to contribute to improving air quality by 20% to 30% in 122 cities across India (Ganguly et. al., 2020). The control measures for the transportation sector include promoting electric vehicles for public transport and providing accessible charging stations for all users, investing in highway infrastructure, peripheral roads, road expansions, and cycling zones, using bioethanol, and upgrading particle filters in diesel vehicles. In the industrial sector, measures include monitoring industrial emissions through the Online Continuous Emissions Monitoring System (OCEMS) and relocating polluting industries to areas that do not directly affect urban and rural populations. For waste burning, the measures focus on creating a campaign against it, improving the treatment of horticultural and segregated waste to optimise recycling and reuse processes. In the construction sector, measures are aimed at controlling fugitive emissions, reducing particle dispersion in construction areas, and managing material transport. To control dust, measures involve ensuring 33% forest cover, creating green buffer zones and water sources, guaranteeing roads are free from potholes, and maintaining road pavements (Ganguly et. al., 2020).
Finally, the control measures for the residential sector include expanding the coverage of LPG/PNG stoves in households. Additionally, Kankaria et. al. (2014) suggest other control measures such as public awareness campaigns about the health hazards, modifying stove and/or chimney designs to redirect smoke, and improving home ventilation to avoid smoke concentrations. Although these latter measures do not address the root problem, they are temporary solutions to mitigate exposure to pollutants. While the intentions to improve air quality in India are promising, they are conditioned by political factors such as the periodic updating of emission data, city planning with approaches based on atmospheric measurements, and financial and managerial commitments from institutional entities. This way, a positive environmental change for future generations can be achieved.
References:
Chakraborty, J. and Basu, P. (2021). Air quality and environmental injustice in India: Connecting particulate pollution to social disadvantages. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(1), 304. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010304
Guttikunda, S. K., Goel, R. and Pant, P. (2014). Nature of air pollution, emission sources, and management in the Indian cities. Atmospheric environment, 95, 501-510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.07.006
CPCB, F. (2010). Air quality monitoring, emission inventory and source apportionment study for Indian cities. Central Pollution Control Board.
Ganguly, T., Selvaraj, K. L. and Guttikunda, S. K. (2020). National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) for Indian cities: Review and outlook of clean air action plans. Atmospheric Environment: X, 8, 100096. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aeaoa.2020.100096
Kankaria, A., Nongkynrih, B. and Gupta, S. K. (2014). Indoor air pollution in India: Implications on health and its control. Indian journal of community medicine, 39(4), 203-207. DOI: 10.4103/0970-0218.143019
The New York Times (2017). ¿Por qué India no puede controlar su contaminación? (Why Can’t India Control Its Pollution?) [online]. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/es/2017/12/14/espanol/india-contaminacion-aire-modhi.html [Accessed 1 July 2024].
